The Weimar Republic Essay

In 2016 I was assigned a task called Contextual And Cultural Referencing in Art and Design as part of my Graphic Design course. One of the tasks assigned to me was to produce an essay on the Weimar Republic. I was to include information and analysis on the following:

• How and why it started and flourished

• What was it a reaction to

• Who were some of the main practitioners

• The Bauhaus Movement and the diversity of Art & Design activities within it

• How have they influenced modern practice

• Some art from this period was labelled Degenerate Art by the Nazi regime, why was this and what were the intentions behind it

This essay which I found through secondary research which is going to be Harvard referenced will be written in my own words, like for instance:

If I found this paragraph of an article on a website that was originally written like this:

"Sally Morrison has been detained in Glasgow Airport last night due to a suspected item in her baggage"

I would paraphrase the paragraph to something like this:

"Last night, Police Scotland detained Sally Morrison who was arrested in Glasgow Airport having arrived from Dubai as it is believed that there is an item in her baggage that looks suspicious."

The essay on this blog will remain the same as it was whilst written last year, the downside is that whilst it looked alright and all the subjects covered, the referencing of the research was done completely the wrong way and not to the Harvard style requested of me in the assignment. Here is the screenshot of the way I did the referencing:

It should have looked something like this:

Well enough said here as I must now do the essay, as stated above it will remain the same, but it will be referenced properly this time, so without further ado, here is the essay as it should look.

The Weimar Republic

This is an essay on the Weimar Republic

How did the Weimar Republic begin?

Germany, having lost the First World War, it’s Kaiser had fled and this led to the declaration of a new democratic government in February 1919 at the small town of Weimar, Germany. This course of action was too dangerous in Berlin to make such a declaration as there had been a revolt by a group of Communists called the Sparticists. The Weimar Republic was a genuinely good attempt for a perfectly democratic country to be created.

(bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/history/mwh/germany/weimarstrengthweakrev1.shtml)

Kaiser Wilhelm

Strengths and Weaknesses

However, The Weimar Republic looked like a democracy so perfect it was too good to be true, but it did have 2 great weaknesses, these were proportional representation and Article 48.

STRENGTHS

• A Bill of Rights was guaranteed for every German for freedom of speech as well as religion and equality underneath the law

• All men and women in Germany who were aged from 20+ were given the option to vote. This was greater than Britain as the British women over 30 could vote.

Other Strengths:

• There was a president who was elected and a Reichstag was also elected (Parliament)

• The Reichstag was given the power to make the laws and appointing of a government that was to do what the Reichstag wished them to do

WEAKNESSES

• Proportional Representation Unfortunately, instead of voting for an MP, as the people of Britain can do, Weimar Germans only had the option of voting for a party. Each and every party in Weimar, Germany was allocated seats in the Reichstag exactly reflecting to the people who had voted for these parties. Fair as it sounded, but a disaster in practice, resulting in dozens of tiny parties, without a party strong enough to get a majority, and from that moment there was no government to get its laws passed in the Reichstag. This was one of the Republics major of weaknesses.

• Article 48 In an emergency, the president didn’t need the agreement of the Reichstag, but had the power to issue decrees. However, the problem was that it didn’t say what an emergency was, and it turned out in the end that it was to be a back door that Hitler could take legal power.

(bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/history/mwh/germany/weimarstrengthweakrev2.shtml)

Weimar Art

klee.golden-fish

trench

The Golden Fish by Paul Klee and The Trench by Otto Dix

(Image source: The Trench: http://alphahistory.com/weimarrepublic/weimar-art/

and The Golden Fish: http://www.dl.ket.org/webmuseum/wm/paint/auth/klee/golden-fish/)

Weimar Germany was welcoming to new styles and movements in Art and Design. Weimar Art innovations were shaped in part by both the social and economic conditions in Germany since the war. The impact of the war as well as the collapse of the entire monarchy and the authoritarian government had a huge impact on Germany’s artistic community. Artists from Germany questioned it’s traditional values and styles which formed in the 19th century, in particular the old styles of Prussia that had a strong empathy of strength, authority and militarism. They began to walk away from it’s traditional forms and experimented with new styles and newer techniques. By doing this, they borrowed from other artistic movements, such as Social Realism, the pro socialist movement of art what had emerged in Soviet Russia.

Großstadt - Metropolis' - (1927-28) - Otto Dix

Weimar artists had other and bigger ideas that they wanted to incorporate which had reflected the conditions and attitudes of the time. This revolution of art did not please everybody. Those such as traditionalists and reactionaries hated Weimar Art, they thought it to be decadent, frivolous and pointless. When the government gave way to the likings of Hitler and the Nazis in the year 1933, many of Weimar Art’s aspects came directly under attack from the current new reigme.

WW1 effects and Otto Dix

Effect of the WW1 in Germany and devastation [if !supportLineBreakNewLine] [endif]

The very long and lingering effects of the First World War impacted obviously on Weimar era art. The work of a man named Otto Dix which is particularly worthy of attention.

Otto Dix was probably a bit more influential than any other artist from Germany as he had a hand in shaping the more popular image of the Weimar Republic of the Twenties in the twentieth century.

“Art is exorcism. I paint dreams and visions too; the dreams and visions of my time. Painting is the effort to produce order; order in yourself. There is much chaos in me, much chaos in our time."

Otto Dix

(http://www.theartstory.org/artist-dix-otto.htm)

Dix, a veteran who was heavily haunted by his WW1 experiences, made his subjects in the beginning with crippled soldiers. In the course of his artistic career, he began painting nudes, prostitutes and often savagely satirical portraits of celebrities from the intellectual circles of Germany. Around the 1930’s, his work became more and darker and more allegorical, this had indeed attracted the attention of the Nazi’s. Dix responded to this by moving gradually away from social themes, turning his attentions to landscape and Christianity as his subjects. He went on to serve in the army during the WWII, he enjoyed considerable acclaim in his later years. He also went on to move to Dresden, which was one of Germany’s leading artistic cities, where he made his influences by the expressionists, the Dada movement and other modernist schools.

In the early twenties, Dix began to work on a series of paintings that depicted the war. He mainly made uses of darker tones and grotesque detail, which showed soldiers who were injured, as well as decomposing bodies and skeletons depicting the many horrors of warfare which was mechanized. His best known piece is The Trench, which was composed in 1923 (shown above). Otto Dix gave the home front of Weimar a good representation, his paintings depicted crippled war veterans and despairing civilians of Berlin’s streets. The themes which were confronting and monstrous in detail in the work Dix created, caused such a stir, resulting in him being blacklisted by many galleries. Dix later went on to be deemed the term of ‘degenerate’ by the Nazis in artistic terms and he was ordered to paint landscapes; many of his older pieces were burned. Another picture based on Dix’s interpretation of the war was this painting below called The War Cripples.

Dada Art

Cut with the Dada Kitchen knife collage by Hannah Hoch

Another type of art movement which was not a native of Germany was called the Dada art movement. This was also a popular movement of art during the Weimar Republic era in the early 1920’s. Dadaism emerged in Switzerland during the First World War, this manifested in painting, graphic design, photography and poetry. Artists of the Dada movement were an anarchistic bunch, unlike any other artistic movement, they were a movement who hated war, rejected traditions and all capitalist middle-class values were rejected. Instead, they would go on to create a movement which was to be an ‘anything goes’ movement of art, celebrating chaos and disorder. There are some Dada artists out there who spoke about their wish to cause offence to art lovers and destroy perceptions about the true meaning of art.

One artist that popped to my mind is a guy called George Grosz. Below are some examples of his work:

The Lovesick Man (1916)

Painter Of The Hole

Suicidio

Desempleado

Ausschweifung Berlin Night Club

(All images found from same source: https://licricardososa.wordpress.com/2011/09/02/george-grosz-pinturas/)

There were no rules or form on logical terms in Dadaist creations: their intentions were to either to shock or to confuse. Dada artists made great and extensive uses of collages and montages, though their composition rarely made very much, George Grosz and Hannah Hoch were very much at the forefront of quite a small, but prolific Dada clique based in Berlin, Germany. Most artists from Germany, however were motivated in a more political scale to be swept up by the splendor of Dadaism; they would not have preferred to divorce themselves from the political and social events during Weimar Period. Even Hannah Hoch’s collage Cut with the Dada Kitchen Knife through the Last Weimar Beer Belly Cultural Epoch in Germany (pictured above) still has political overtones in her uses of colours and compisitions.

The Bauhaus Movement

Bauhaus was one of the most influential modernist art schools of the twentieth century. Bauhaus, whose approach to teaching and understanding art’s relationships with both society and technology, had a major impact in both Europe and the USA long after it had closed. It had shaped by the 19th and early 20th centuries trends such as movement in Arts and Crafts, which sought to level the distinction between both fine and applied arts alike, reuniting creativity and manufacturing. This is reflected in the medievalism of romance within the early years of the school, picturing itself as a kind of a guild for medieval crafting Medievalism gave way to a stress on uniting art and industrial design in the mid 1920’s, this had proven to be it’s original and important achievements. The Bauhaus school of art is also renowned for it’s faculty, including artists such as: Wassily Kandinsky, Josef Albers, Laszlo Moholy-Nagy, Paul Klee and Johannes Itten. Architects included Walter Gropius and Ludwig Mies van der Roche as well as a designer called Marcel Breuer.

These are the artists of the Bauhaus movement mentioned in the above paragraph.

Vassily-Kandinsky

1ee9158235327205b4cc51741bfd0504

Laszlo_Moholy-Nagy_-_photography_from_NARA_-_281845

Paul_Klee_1911

Johannes-Itten

L to R: Vasilly Kandinsky: Image source (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wassily_Kandinsky), Josef Albers: (Image source: https://www.pinterest.com/gu1lha/josef-albers/), LaszloMoholy-Nagy (Image Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3_Moholy-Nagy) and Johannes Itten (Image source: https://www.kaufmann-mercantile.com/field-notes/johannes-itten/)

“The ultimate aim of artistic activity is building! ... Architects, sculptors, painters, we must all get back to craft! … The artist is a heightened manifestation of the craftsman … Let us form … a new guild of craftsmen without the class divisions that set out to raise an arrogant barrier between craftsmen and artists! … Let us together create the building of the future which will be all in one: architecture and painting.”

Walter Gropius, Founder of The School of Bauhaus, Opened in Weimar, Germany in 1919.

First Paragraph and Quote source: http://www.theartstory.org/movement-bauhaus.htm

Graphic Design was in fact one of the first noticeable innovations in Bauhaus. Designers of Bauhaus developed bold new fonts that conveyed messages both with style and simplicity. Stylistic elements were abandoned as these were considered unnecessary, such as serifs as well as the usage of upper/lower case letters. Bauhaus fonts consisted of shapes which were simple but bold and eye-catching but stylish and easy to read. One particular man created the Bauhaus Font (printing style) in 1925 was called Herbert Bayer of the Dessau Bauhaus. This font symbolizes the nature of the design which had been carried out in the Bauhaus Design School.

(http://alphahistory.com/weimarrepublic/weimar-art/)

Here is an example of his font below:

The Bauhaus Font by Herbert Bayer

The Bauhaus movement were producing furniture designs by the mid 1920’s that embraced simple but functional forms. Furniture of Bauhaus made extensive use of materials such as, tubular steel and synthetics instead of the more traditional timber, leather and fabrics.

An example of Bauhaus Furniture

There was little upholstery or handcrafting required meaning this could be mass produced at a lower cost. Bauhaus furniture’s intentions were to look minimalist and streamlined, whilst being comfortable and ergonomically sound. The ‘cantilever chair’, an S-shaped design without back legs was their most famous items of furniture that was associated with Bauhaus. This is still commonly used in offices and furniture designed for outdoor use. The Bauhaus school closed indefinitely in 1933 when the Nazis came into power.

The cantilever chair was designed by a man called Marcel Breuer in 1928 during the Bauhaus movement. It was made using chrome-plated tubular steel and varnished wood, bentwood and wicker. It’s manufacturers were Gebruder Thonet AG, Frankenberg on Eder, Germany. It was produced in 1929 and it is still produced and used to this present day.

Degenerate Art

The Sick Child by Edvard Munch

Loreley by Oskar Kokoschla

Woman With a Bag by Karl Schmidt-Rottluff

Degenerate Art is the label the Nazi regime under Hitler’s leadership applied to art they did not approve of, this was an attempt to bring art under their control.

Modern art, of all types was to be considered degenerate by the Nazi party. In particular, Expressionism was singled out. 1937, museums in Germany were purged of modern art by the government, this led to the removal of some 15, 550 works. A selection of these was then put on show in Munich in exhibition, which was titled Entartete Kunst. This course of action was staged, encouraging the public to mock the work. During this same time, an exhibition of traditionally painted and sculpted work was held, extolling the Nazi party and Hitler’s views of the virtue of German life; Kinder, Kuche, Kirche; roughly, family, home and church. On an ironic scale, this official Nazi art mirrored the image of the socialist realism of the communists who were hated.

Some of the Degenerated Art pieces were sold off at auction in Switzerland in 1939 and more of it was disposed of through private dealing. A total of about 5,000 were burned secretly in Berlin later of that same year. The Sick Child (painting above this paragraph) by Edvard Munch was sold off in 1939 and is now in the Tate collection.

The Nazi Regime

In 2013 it was revealed that a huge stash of modern art had been found in a flat in Munich. Many of these paintings were considered to "degenerate" by the Nazis, who staged an exhibition especially to ridicule them as much as possible. Now why was it that Hitler hated abstract art so much?

[endif]July 1937, it was four years after the Nazis came to power, they put on two art exhibitions in Munich. The Great German Art Exhibition was designed to show works that Hitler himself approved of - depicting statuesque blonde nudes along with idealised soldiers and landscapes.

One example of art Hitler approved of.

There was a second exhibition, just down the road, that showed the other side of German art - modern, abstract, non-representational - or as the Nazis themselves saw it, "degenerate".

The Degenerate Art Exhibition included works by some of the great international names - Paul Klee, Oskar Kokoschka and Wassily Kandinsky – in addition to this, famous German artists of the time such Max Beckmann, Emil Nolde and Georg Grosz.

The exhibition handbook explained that the aim of the show was to "reveal the philosophical, political, racial and moral goals and intentions behind this movement, and the driving forces of corruption which follow them".

Another piece of art that won Hitler's approval based on his approval of Landscape Art.

[endif]Works were included, just so long as "if they were abstract or expressionistic, but also in certain cases if the artwork was done by a Jewish artist," says Jonathan Petropoulos, professor of European History at Claremont McKenna College and author of several books on art and politics in the Third Reich.

He says the exhibition was laid out with the deliberate intention of encouraging a negative reaction. "The pictures were hung askew, there was graffiti on the walls, which insulted the art and the artists, and made claims that made this art seem outlandish, ridiculous."

British artist Robert Medley went to see the show for himself. "It was enormously crowded and all the pictures hung like some kind of provincial auction room where the things had been simply slapped up on the wall regardless to create the effect that this was worthless stuff," he said.

Hitler had been an artist before he became a politician - but the realistic paintings of buildings and landscapes that he preferred had been dismissed by the art establishment in favour of the more modernised abstract styles.

Adolf Hitler painted this masterpiece in 1914. It is called Farmstead.

So the Degenerate Art Exhibition was the moment he chose to get his revenge. He had made a speech about it in the summer of that year, saying "works of art which cannot be understood in themselves but need some pretentious instruction book to justify their existence will never again find their way to the German people".

The Nazis claimed that degenerated artworks were products of the Jews and the Bolsheviks, although only six of the 112 artists featured in the exhibition were in fact actually Jewish.

The artwork exhibited was divided into different rooms by category - art that was considered blasphemous, art by Jewish or communist artists, art that criticised German soldiers, art that offended the honour of German women.

One room featured entirely abstract paintings, this was labelled "the insanity room".

"In the paintings and drawings of this chamber of horrors there is no telling what was in the sick brains of those who wielded the brush or the pencil," reads the entry in the exhibition handbook.

The idea of the exhibition wasn’t just to mock modern art, but to encourage people to see it as a symptom of an evil plot against all German people.

The curators were driven to some lengths to get their messages across, hiring actors to mingle with the crowds and criticise the exhibits.

The Degenerate Art Exhibition in Munich, Bavaria had attracted more than 1 million visitors – about three times more than the officially sanctioned Great German Art Exhibition.

Some realised it could be their last chance to see this kind of art in Germany, while others endorsed Hitler's views. Many people also came because of the air of scandal around the show - and it wasn't just Nazi sympathisers who found the art off-putting. (can be continued)

(http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-24819441 written in my own words)

Adolf Hitler

In conclusion (my own words)

This essay describes the story about The Weimar Republic and the art of the Weimar Republic, ending with a short paragraph about the Nazi Regime. Most of the work on this essay I found interesting, ranging from The Trench and The War Cripples, both of them by Otto Dix and what is going on in the paintings, soldiers cut from limb to limb to a whole bunch of crippled soldiers as depicted from The War Cripples, only for him to go on by painting a much more jovial picture of people enjoying themselves, singing, dancing in the cabaret and so on. Otto Dix would go on to remain scarred by his experiences in the war, but this failed to deter him from using his artistic talents. The Dada art movement, I would also find interesting, I chose not to expand too much on this, preferring to talk about Bauhaus in greater detail, and I chose to illustrate this story with pictures of their font and furniture rather than paintings as I was interested in their furniture, hoping to buy some of their furniture one day for my home. In regards to the Hitler/Nazi regime, I was shocked to have read about what had happened during their time in power, from Jews getting targeted for intimidation and torture, as well as encouraging women to give birth to Aryan children, to me it makes the May/Tory government in Britain today look like The Teddy Bears picnic. Much, much more I could have elaborated on, but this I will research hopefully in time in my lifetime, for this essay, I just covered the bits I felt that needed covering.

END OF ESSAY

Note: Biography of Otto Dix was found from 2 different sources, one telling more of a story than the next. The sources are (beginning from “The lingering…, ending with “mental breakdown) http://alphahistory.com/weimarrepublic/weimar-art/ and and then more about his life found in http://www.theartstory.org/artist-dix-otto.htm

REFERENCES

Bauhausitaly.com. (2017). DINING TABLE ISAMU NOGUCHI. [online] Available at: http://www.bauhausitaly.com/bauhaus-furniture/isamu-noguchi/dining-table-noguchi+i166.html [Accessed 5 Apr. 2017].

BBC News. (2017). Degenerate art: Why Hitler hated modernism - BBC News. [online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-24819441 [Accessed 5 Apr. 2017].

Bbc.co.uk. (2017). BBC - GCSE Bitesize - Weimar - strengths and weaknesses. [online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/history/mwh/germany/weimarstrengthweakrev1.shtml [Accessed 5 Apr. 2017].

Bulman, M. (2017). Adolf Hitler was 'gibbering super junkie'. [online] The Independent. Available at: http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/adolf-hitler-super-junkie-drugs-veins-collapsed-norman-ohler-blitzed-thousands-injections-a7346111.html [Accessed 5 Apr. 2017].

Commons.wikimedia.org. (2017). File:Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany - 1902.jpg - Wikimedia Commons. [online] Available at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kaiser_Wilhelm_II_of_Germany_-_1902.jpg [Accessed 5 Apr. 2017].

Culture, W. (2017). Weimar Culture. [online] Germany19001939.blogspot.co.uk. Available at: http://germany19001939.blogspot.co.uk/2013/05/weimarer-kultur-weimar-culture-refers.html [Accessed 5 Apr. 2017].

degenerart. (2017). War Cripples by Otto Dix. [online] Available at: https://degenerart.wordpress.com/2015/06/19/war-cripples-by-otto-dix/ [Accessed 5 Apr. 2017].

Dl.ket.org. (2017). WebMuseum: Klee, Paul: The Golden Fish. [online] Available at: http://www.dl.ket.org/webmuseum/wm/paint/auth/klee/golden-fish/ [Accessed 5 Apr. 2017].

En.wikipedia.org. (2017). Flag of Germany. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag_of_Germany [Accessed 5 Apr. 2017].

En.wikipedia.org. (2017). László Moholy-Nagy. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3_Moholy-Nagy [Accessed 5 Apr. 2017].

En.wikipedia.org. (2017). Wassily Kandinsky. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wassily_Kandinsky [Accessed 5 Apr. 2017].

English.illinois.edu. (2017). A World War I Photo Essay. [online] Available at: http://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/ww1/photoessay.htm [Accessed 5 Apr. 2017].

Facinghistoryandourselvesmhs.wikispaces.com. (2017). FacingHistoryandOurselvesMHS - Unit 3 - The Weimar Republic-Rise of the Nazis. [online] Available at: https://facinghistoryandourselvesmhs.wikispaces.com/Unit+3+-+The+Weimar+Republic-Rise+of+the+Nazis [Accessed 5 Apr. 2017].

Facultades mentales. (2017). George Grosz, pinturas. [online] Available at: https://licricardososa.wordpress.com/2011/09/02/george-grosz-pinturas/ [Accessed 5 Apr. 2017].

History. (2017). The Weimar Republic. [online] Available at: http://coneillhistory12.weebly.com/the-weimar-republic.html [Accessed 5 Apr. 2017].

Inhabitat.com. (2017). INFOGRAPHIC: The History of the Bauhaus Movement. [online] Available at: http://inhabitat.com/infographic-the-history-of-the-bauhaus-movement/ [Accessed 5 Apr. 2017].

Midcenturymodernfurniture.com. (2017). Cesca Side Chair & Armchair by Marcel Breuer | Mid-Century Modern Furniture. [online] Available at: http://www.midcenturymodernfurniture.com/furniture/marcel-breuer-cesca-side-chair-armchair/ [Accessed 5 Apr. 2017].

Newstatesman.com. (2017). The New Woman: Berlin’s feminist, Dadaist pioneer Hannah Höch. [online] Available at: http://www.newstatesman.com/juliet-jacques/2014/01/new-woman-berlins-feminist-dadaist-pioneer-hannah-h%C3%B6ch [Accessed 5 Apr. 2017].

Pinterest. (2017). Josef Albers. [online] Available at: https://www.pinterest.com/gu1lha/josef-albers/ [Accessed 5 Apr. 2017].

Sobadsogood.com. (2017). 25 Rarely Seen Artworks Painted By Adolf Hitler. [online] Available at: http://sobadsogood.com/2013/07/22/25-rarely-seen-artworks-painted-by-adolf-hitler/ [Accessed 5 Apr. 2017].

Tate. (2017). Degenerate art – Art Term | Tate. [online] Available at: http://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/d/degenerate-art [Accessed 5 Apr. 2017].

Tate. (2017). Loreley, Oskar Kokoschka 1941-2 | Tate. [online] Available at: http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/kokoschka-loreley-t05486 [Accessed 5 Apr. 2017].

Tate. (2017). The Sick Child, Edvard Munch 1907 | Tate. [online] Available at: http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/munch-the-sick-child-n05035 [Accessed 5 Apr. 2017].

Technologystudent.com. (2017). BAUHAUS STYLE OF WRITING. [online] Available at: http://www.technologystudent.com/prddes1/bauhaus2.html [Accessed 5 Apr. 2017].

The Art Story. (2017). Bauhaus Movement, Artists and Major Works. [online] Available at: http://www.theartstory.org/movement-bauhaus.htm [Accessed 5 Apr. 2017].

The Art Story. (2017). Otto Dix Biography, Art, and Analysis of Works. [online] Available at: http://www.theartstory.org/artist-dix-otto.htm [Accessed 5 Apr. 2017].

Weimar Republic. (2017). Weimar art. [online] Available at: http://alphahistory.com/weimarrepublic/weimar-art/ [Accessed 5 Apr. 2017].

www.wikiart.org. (2017). Woman with a Bag, 1915 - Karl Schmidt-Rottluff. [online] Available at: https://www.wikiart.org/en/karl-schmidt-rottluff/woman-with-a-bag-1915 [Accessed 5 Apr. 2017].

Zifcak, S., Poitras, M., Vega, D. and Hundley, J. (2017). Johannes Itten - Kaufmann Mercantile. [online] Kaufmann Mercantile. Available at: https://www.kaufmann-mercantile.com/field-notes/johannes-itten/ [Accessed 5 Apr. 2017].